The crop damage by wild animals Global View Country Report and reviews in the Section 1-10
Damage to crops by wild animals
Discussions SECTION I GENERAL
GM Wani
Ph.D, DVM (Germany)
ISSGAPU FN, FN DAAD
Director Extension Education / SAMETI
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir
Shalimar, Srinagar, 191,121
A comprehensive review shortly to determine the damage to crops by wild animals worldwide. The revision was attempted in response to a recommendation of ICAR Regional Committee No.1, held in October, 2007 at Solan, Hp chaired by the Honorable Director General of ICAR Dr. Mangala Rai was opened by the Honorable Minister of Agriculture, J & K, Jenab Ab. Aziz Zargar.
Author
Published by: Director State Agricultural Management and Extension Training Institute Kashmir (SAMETI-K), SKUAST-K, Shalimar, POBox: 461, GPO, Srinagar.
Publication No: SAMETI/Pub/3/1000/January, 2008
POBox: 461, GPO, Srinagar, E. Mail: Wanimohyuddin@yahoo.com
Phone: 0194-2461317,0194-2463460,0194-2463459
Mobile: 09419095342; Residence :0194-2431508, 2435741
Introduction:
Human wildlife conflicts have started since the beginning of the era human since Adam and Eve. This conflict of desert made man hid in caves and was known as "caveman". Gradually, with his progress, he is who invented axes and other weapons of stone and iron age to frighten the wild animals at first. Later he sought to save himself. This feeling of uncertainty and fear of wild animals and wildlife reduced by the invention of fire. He edged weapons from the bones and iron. These early weapons were the beginning of this conflict, human animal conflict.
Thirty thousand years ago, human population increased to 6 million. They were still hunters. With the invention fire was set on fire a large majority of the shrines, which fear the migrating wildlife and their neighborhoods. Many forests, mountains and difficult terrain still beyond the reach of man three thousand years ago, although the human population has increased to 60 million. The man has already started primitive agriculture. He had made their land and wildlife afraid for him, left his lodgings searched habitat near and fresh. The man had been craving for skins, horns, ornaments and other forest resources. He invented many ways to scare the wildlife group. He became a "danger" not only to wildlife, but by their own species, environment and ecological biodiversity.
Three hundred years ago, adequate food production and industrial crops produced, by nearly 600 million people. This went on for 30 years now and is feeding 6,000 million. Today we have a world food security of 7.5 million. Achievements in human food security, reduction of all other wildlife, hence the origin of the wild life of human conflict is the desire of man more food, more luxury, or sometimes fun to hunt or skin. This reduced the wildlife reserves and now open conflict came into being.
Many man-wildlife conflicts have occurred in the Gir forests of Gujarat, UP Rajaji National Park and many other states where forest lands were converted into farmland. The elephants, warthogs, monkeys, squirrels, deer, birds like crows, parrots, dogs savage, jackals, gaur, Sambur, langurs, hens, roosters pea neilgai, hippos, biats, blackbirds, rodents, wild pigs, wild species, primates, beetles, foxes, pigeons, wild pigs and a variety of crop damage from other species. Carnivores, even attack humans as well. These attacks are search for food or habitat loss. Many such incidents became known in Jammu and Kashmir. The leopod bear and other wildlife reduction in number. Their habitats used by humans.
The human causalities are caused by species of carnivorous, herbivorous, but inflict economic losses and also human. Damage to crops by wildlife has been the new threat to agricultural productivity worldwide. This also concerns us in Asia and India. This review seeks to determine:
1. Extent of damage to crops.
Nature 2. Crop damage
3. Ways and means to prevent these losses.
4. Strategic planning to promote a line between the conservation of wildlife and the agricultural economy, especially in India.
Executive Summary and Strategic Primary: [EASE]
1. Importance
Ranges damaging crop species of wild birds, elephants, monkeys, squirrels, deer, parrots, wild dogs, foxes, deer and many others like Neilgai. On average this crop damage by wildlife amounts to U $ 961 per hectare. It's more than an Indian farmer gains a HACT year. Therefore, these estimates of damage are spectacular and economically important.
2. Human Elephant Conflict (HEC):
i) economic loss:
Among the elephants attack the crops is common. Crops near their areas of damage more room. Elephants damage crops be twice as large as those caused no damage to crops. Therefore, greater proximity of crops near their ranks are likely to damage crops. Train accidents abetting the elephants to crops or damage humans. Indonesia saw more frequent incursions of elephants on crops. Human Elephant Conflict (HEC) is common and poses serious problems in Africa. Both groups men and family group attacks have been observed. HEC losses in West Bengal were worth 3.2 Crosas rupees. This damage occurred in 3368sq kms.radius. The numerical quantity of the elephants was 62 only. Assam, observed damage to the cutters of wild Asian elephants and elephant damage in RAID crops in flocks of 10-13 individuals or large elephant herds comprising 50-74. In Darjeeling, only an area of 200 kms. From east to west in the past two decades, 277 houses were demolished by elephants, killing 66 people in 5 districts. As a result of this conflict 23 elephants were killed. In 2001, economic losses of the order fifty thousand U.S. dollars is expected to be inflicted by elephants. This scenario requires extensive measures to be taken to reduce such damage. The review measures, everyone after some studies suggest to be made and subsequent action to be implemented to reduce such damage.
ii) Loss mitigation:
Methods developed and used to mitigate crop damage by elephants was to scare drumming animals, or even firegracks fires air gun. The crop protection fencing or even using electric fences or raise the poles and wiring can be effective. Deterrents based chemicals, and electric fences have been found to reduce damage to crops. High-voltage electric fences using energizers in the west have kept wild animals damaging crops but this preposition can not be applicable in areas where homes still lack access to electricity. However, this method can act as a temporary boundary separating wild and domestic habitats. This could prevent intrusions to foci vatic national Sly. Fields of protection, digging trenches, changing cropping patterns have a possibility to reduce the conflicts of human or elephant elephant man conflicts. A 30% open space between two habitats can help prevent HEC. This means that a distance be maintained between the fields and elephants' habitat. A adequate research on these lines is necessary. A network based on geographic information system (GIS) with a resolution may help to have 25Km2 profitable source data to analyze these situations. There is an urgent need for identifying spatial predictors of HEC. On the basis of this study may suggest or propose mitigation strategies, early warning of attacks, the use of barriers and deterrents. The usefulness of the methods can be determined for land use and livelihood strategies to limit HEC.
3. Dear nilgai Damages.
A survey of 2,500 farms in the United Kingdom found that 69% (n = 192) grain crops were damaged by deer. This damage costs £ 500 per year per farm. Damages varied with deer density. In the U.S. Deer also damage integrated by the loss of crops, landscape damage, car accidents and property damage. Damages alongwith nilgai deer damage are common in India too. Acacia trees cover the area is generally used as a shelter for nilgai. We found extensive damage to crops in Mathura (CIRG) and the nilgai visits nearby area. Grazing and browsing nilgai cause losses on farms. This is considered a threat mammals crops by farmers. This behavior of ozone inflict damage young tree, so valuable to the growth of trees on farms in the semi-arid India.
Damages for deer corn in the U.S. amounts to 6.6.% Per hectare. In an area where a farmer owned 125 hectares at an average of 55 hectares were used to plant corn. There is a loss of 6.6% of GDP, which is a huge economic losses. Similar Damage by deer in Ontario, Canada, Portugal, Japan, South America and elsewhere have been revised. In Virginia, also a study involving 1506 farmers producing agricultural revealed 58% of the deer that experienced damages. Ways and means to prevent such attacks on crops have been reviewed. Most of the possible measures to be taken are similar to those described for elephants (HEC).
4. Other damage to mammals and birds
Damages Monkey corn, sweet potato and other crops. It is suggested to reduce or change cropping pattern or alternating with non-agricultural activities near the location of habitats of monkeys. Several methods are reviewed. Bat damage, damage to crops Hygo in Japan, the wine grape damage by bats in Andhra Pradesh, India have studied. Economic assessment of crop loss has been reviewed in these pages. Clover instead of grass can reduce damage from wild mammals. Alley cropping of black walnuts helped to save soybean and corn crop damage. Pesticide damages wildlife and minimize attacks, boxes and other aid electric fences to prevent such damage. Can I use harmful means to save the crops, the need for an appropriate strategy for preserve the ecology and biodiversity. Both crops and wild animals and the need for storage security. A management strategy is needed to safeguard the wildlife and humans alike. A policy framework is expected.
Damage to crops in the U.S. amounts Blackbird to 5-8 million. A considerable amount of millions of rupees have been estimated in damages in the form of crops, human and material losses from wild animals, birds and other rodents in the India. Many measures to reduce these losses are necessary and have been revised.
Review
1. Wild animals damage crops
For elephants boar, porcupine, rheus macaques (Macaca mulatta), hoary-bellied squirrel, barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), Red-breasted Parakeet (Psittacula alexandri), and dogs wild are wild animals damaging crops.
The methods developed and used to mitigate human-wildlife conflicts include, frighten animals, crop protection, and using a sort of scarecrow and traps (Miah et al 2001).
Accurate estimate Damage to crops by wild animals (raccoons, white-tailed deer and coyotes) often requires labor-intensive sampling procedure. Variable area transect (VAT) sampling has been identified as a potential labor-saving alternative to the sampling grids (Engerman et al 2002).
2. Conflict Human wildlife
The owners of farmland suffer in the form of damage to crops, livestock and other property. Some wildlife agencies maintain programs of mitigation and compensation. A model of deer damage inflicted crops used to facilitate agency decisions regarding deer densities and distribution, use reduction, and provide compensation. The model is applied to field-level compensation claims in Wisconsin, USA. The results are consistent with the theory (J Yoder, 2002).
3. Crops Economic loss due to wildlife
Perceptions of people are perceived through participatory discussions covering 419 households distributed in 10 villages in the buffer zone. The uncodified traditional rights of the local people were substantially reduced through policy interventions set in since 1860. Local people and tourists have been excluded the core zone covering an area of 625 km2 since 1982. The deterioration of the rural economy due to damage to crops and livestock by wildlife, and the completion income opportunities of wild resources of medicinal plants and tourism in the central zone were the main negative impacts of conservation policy feel more than 90% of respondents. It means an annual economic loss per household was estimated as Rs.1285, Rs. 1195 and Rs.156 due to damage caused by wildlife food crops, fruit trees and beehives, respectively, RS. 1587 due to the prohibition of collection of wild medicinal plants for marketing Rs.7904 and because of the ban on tourism in the core zone. The authority paid compensation reserve for livestock killed by wildlife, but was barely 5% of the market value of livestock killed, evaluated by the people. People do not cherish the current benefits of the management of reserves in the form of salaries for the realization afforestation work, partial compensation for livestock depredation and availability of solar energy devices, wool, and spinning devices. Approximately 95% of respondents identified empowerment of local people towards the realization of revenues from the dead wood and trees patients in community forests, income from medicinal plants in the buffer zone and the opening of the core zone for tourism as potential development options. Improving the rural economy, the main concern of local people, has not received much attention as the enforcement of protection by the management reservation. There is a need for policy development and management actions that serve the economic interests of local people, together with the improvement of target environmental conservation (Maikhuri et al 2001).
4. Selected crops:
The damage was minor (34%) in carrot and multiple experimental cultivation of carrots planted as sole crop (62% damage). Staggered plantings of canola, which continuously produce flowers, cultivation was more effective to attract the green manure crops tested. Producers carrot to use electric fences or 2.4 m woven wire fences, perhaps combined with canola plantings staggered to reduce the depredations of carrot (Schwab et al 2001).
The Colver, instead of grass fertilized, is most effective cover crop in AFA against Damage caused by migratory geese. The lawn should be maintained to foster the growth of clover, which probably involve frequent cutting, but no fertilizer. Further research is needed on the replacement rate of clover in the winter season and the potential benefits of clover meadows for wildlife other (McKay et al 2001). Alley cropping of black walnuts and the percentage with corn and soybean rotation can prevent damage animal. Tree crop ratio of 1:10 may help (Godsey, 2000).
5. Elephant conflict Rights:
Conflicts between elephants (Elephas maximus) and humans occur in Rajaji National Park (RNP), Uttar Pradesh, one of the eleven reservations India designated for the conservation of Asian elephants. Elephant-human. RNP Conflicts in 1996 to 1999 were studied, and there were all humans and deaths elephant or injuries caused by conflict. The impact of the human colonies in the movement of elephants has been studied in 18 villages along 17 km of the southern boundary of site study and 4 in the village of Chilla Motichur corridor. Three male and four female elephants radio were followed for 1-2 years. Primary Conflict included attacking crops, competition between humans and elephants for vegetation, and mortality of elephants due to train accidents. Adult males that crops are going home raided twice adults men not to attack crops. Elephants only damaged crops from fields that occurred within their home ranges. Field trials based chemistry in deterrents and electric fencing should be sought to reduce crop damage. Train speeds should be reduced to avoid accidental elephant mortality (Williams et al 2001).
Wild Elephant Damages:
A fast and people on-site assessments, survey data. Elephants raided crops at a rate of 0.53 elephants per day in Indonesia. The frequency of the raids of crops is related to the type of vegetation along the edge of the park, the size and the presence of rivers, and the distance the elephant in the park Training Center (ETC), which houses some 150 elephants in captivity. Wild elephants damaged at least 450,000 m2 of corn, rice, cassava, beans and other crops annually, and about 900 coconut, banana and other evergreen trees in the study area. Elephants killed or wounded 24. Villagers try to reduce damage caused by elephants guarding fields, digging trenches between the park and its fields, and change their cropping patterns. Elephants of human conflict decreases the likelihood of support from local people for conservation efforts. The proposed approaches consist of elephant trenches, electric fences, the external support to affected villages, and compensation to villagers for damage (Nyhus et al 2000).
This study explores land use conflicts in the south eastern Kajiado District, Kenya. The results of household surveys with farmers and ranchers in 1977 and 1996 to examine changes in land management strategies are compared. The conflict reflects ongoing competition over access to land and scarce water resources between livestock, agriculture and wildlife are the reason for the crop damage. This man-animal conflict must understand the conditions that have created the current conflict (Compbell et al 2000).
It is therefore suggested that open spaces are used 30% as a basis for stratifying division bushes in the use of high and low-the categories of use for estimating deer density. The proportions of each type could be derived from measurements network aerial photographs of the square (J Latham, 2000).
Human elephant conflict
Human-elephant conflict (HEC) in Africa occurs whenever these two species coincide, and poses serious problems for managers wildlife, local communities and elephants alike. Mitigation requires an understanding of the details of the underlying patterns and processes. Although temporal patterns HEC are relatively predictable, spatial variation has shown few universal trends, making it difficult to predict where conflict will take place. Attack on the crops was subdivided into incidents involving only male elephants or family groups. A relatively fine resolution, systematic method network is used to map the locations of conflict incidents, and spatial relationships with the underlying variables were analyzed using correlation analysis and regression logistics. Attacks on crops have been grouped in various conflict zones. Both the appearance and intensity could be predicted on the basis of acreage and for male elephant groups, proximity to larger settlements. On the contrary, incidents of injury and death are less predictable but that correlate with proximity to roads. A network based on geographic information system (GIS) with a resolution of the use of 25km2 profitable source of data, together with statistical simple tools, was capable of identifying spatial predictors of HEC, in finer resolution spatial autocorrelation in risk analysis. Synthesis and application. These results suggest that the spatial correlation of HEC can be identified, irrespective of the sex of the elephants in question. Moreover, the method described here is fully transferable to other sites for comparative analysis of HEC. The use of these results to map vulnerability will enable the development and deployment of appropriate strategies conflict reduction, such as surveillance, early warning systems, barriers and deterrents. The usefulness of such methods and their strategic deployment should be evaluated along with alternative land use and livelihood strategies that limit cultivation within the elephant range (Sitati et al 2003).
Human Elephant Conflict (HEC) in West Bengal was an economic loss worth 3.2 crores. This damage occurred within a radius of 3368 kilometers inhibition of 62 square elephants (Singh et al 2002)
6. Kerala Survey
Damage to crops by wild animals in Kerala, India, has been studied from 1993 to 1996. Data were collected from the offices of the Kerala Forest Department, field survey and the zone of intensive study in Marayur, Idukki District. Forty-five species of crops were destroyed by wild animals in Kerala, the common species were destroyed by wild rice, Plam coconut, banana, cassava, arecanut, coffee, Plam oil, pepper, Jack tree, mulberry and Manago. The main animals involved in crop damage were elephant (Elephas maximus), gaur (Bos gaurus), sambar (Cervus unicolor), wild boar (Sus scrofa), monkey, bonnet (Macaca radiate), the common langur (Presbytis entellus), blacknaped hare (Lepus nigricollis) and pea fowl (Pavo cristatus). Among these, elephants and wild boar took the maximum damage. Of the total compensation claimed by farmers, only 8.2% was sanctioned by Kerala Forest Department. The higher damage of crops (30%) occurred in the forest ranges are subject to the North Circle: pineapple (47%), sweet potato (47%), cassava (42%), Alocasia (39%), beans (25%) and bananas (23%) recorded the highest percentage of damage. In the area of intensive study in Marayur, 28 species of crops were damaged and more damage was during the summer months. The maximum damage was caused by elephant (72%), followed by Gaur (62%), Sambar (17%) and boars (16%). Tiger (Panthera tigris), leopard (Leopard) (Panthera pardus) and wild dog (Conine alpinus) were the main lifters won in the state. A total of 31 deaths and 64 injuries caused by wild animals were reported from the state during the period 1983 to 1993. Thirteen indigenous methods used to control crop damage had been identified. High-voltage electric fences using energy was effective to stop elephants and other herbivores from entering the fields of agriculture. Damage to crops is linked to the cropping patterns and the location of the fields of agriculture. Short and long term steps to prevent crop damage are discussed (Jayson EA, 1999).
7. Damage to crops Bird
The use of nonlethal methods to prevent crop damage by birds have been reported. Blueberry Damages by cedar waxwings (Bombycilla cedrotun minimized. (Avery et al 2002).
8. Wild Bird damage
In northern U.S. Great Plains, conflicts between the red black-winged bird (Agelaius phoeniceus) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus) growers have intensified since the end of the Decade, 1960 due to expanded commercial production sunflowers. We have studied the potential effects of the population suppression of up to 2 million red-winged blackbirds annually by 5 program in the spring with bait DRC-1339 (3-choloro-4 methalalanine) processed rice. It also examined whether lethal control, in combination with current levels of breeding habitat management would be profitable to reduce predation of sunflower crops during the summer. We evaluated the cost-benefit ration of 4 culling scenarios involving (1) cullus Annual variable, not more than 2 million birds, with and without density compensation (ie a positive density response rate) in adult survival and (2) slaughter mass of 2 million birds annually, with and without density compensation. We built a model of red-winged blackbird population represented as an age-based matrix and calibrated to stable growth. We assumed a total population of 27 million birds on 1 April (week 1), which represents the red-winged blackbird breeding stop the population in eastern South Dakota and North Dakota.Under migration in each stage of sacrifice, we have reduced the population stable red-winged Blackbird (equal to men and women) and draft the population up to 23 weeks of the annual cycle (2 September). Next, assess the associated costs of management regarding possible sunflower crop losses, assuming $ 0.07 in damages for the loss of birds and 4% to other factors. Variable annual sacrifices, probably the most biologically realistic model scenarios, given average annual movement of 1 240 560 (SE = 12 328) of the birds compensated density and 1 231 620 (SE = 28 811) birds without compensation of density, cost-benefit ratios of 1:2.3 and 1:3.6, respectively. Annual rates of population intrinsic to the model in the 5 year period ranged 1-4 to 4.8%. Given the potential variability in the efficacy of sacrifice and the combination of direct and indirect costs, they argue that the benefits to the Sunflower growers by lethal control of red-winged blackbiards through the spring of bait, in combination with the current management is not lethal, probably would be negligible (Blackwell et al 2003).
The efficacy of hydrolyzed casein (HC) and retail products containing HC in reducing deer damage to trees and shrubs that were identified in a field experiment conducted in the USA during 2004-05. The results of the experiments indicate the suitability of HC as a deer repellent. Technical grade HC completely eliminated the damage to navigation evergreen shrub (Gaultheria shallon) and conifers (Thuja plicata). Retail sources of HC were not as effective as Pure Protein hydrolysates (Kimball et al 2005).
9. Damages Blackbird
The economic impact of blackbirds can be serious for rice producers in the United States. One approach to the management of this injury is the application of bird-deterrent chemicals for cultivation. Previous pilot tests suggests that the potential of caffeine as a safe, economical bird repellent. In this study, cage feeding trials with Red-winged blackbirds Female and male brown headed cowbirds confirmed that a treatment rate of 25,000 ppm of caffeine in the seeds of rice consumption reduced by up to 76%. Trials with flocks blackbirds mixed species in 0.2 flight pen resulted in only 4% loss of caffine treated rice compared to 43% loss of untreated rice. . Trials Field of caffeine treatment to 10 000 ppm in Louisiana revealed> 90% of rice seed treated caffeine is still not consumed on days 2 and 3 of the study while the blackbirds consume over 80% of untreated seeds. As rice seed treatment to deter blackbirds, caffeine seems to be effective, economic and environmentally safe, although most of the aquatic toxicity is desirable. Improvements in the formulation will be needed to make the compound practical for general applications agricultural spraying and to expand the membership of caffeine to rice seeds under field conditions ((Avery et al 2005).
10. Deer Damage
A questionnaire was distributed to over 2500 farms to learn damage caused by deer in lowland crops, trees and vegetation. The survey results indicate that 69% (n = 1192) to account for farmers had deer on their farms and that Roe and fallow were the most frequent. On those farms with deer present, cereals were the most commonly damaged culture (44%) but only 15% of these farmers said that the annual cost of damage to cereals exceeded 500 pounds per year for the farm. Validation assessments is based on two visits to assess deer damage to the crop, with a sort of deer / evaluation of the density in the assessment March and an assessment of grain yield and quality during the August evaluation. Respondents generally accurate in the density and species of deer reported. The percentage of the exploitation suffered damage attributable to deer was very variable, generally being higher in the first assessment to the second. The figures calculated for the loss of performance were generally low, poor farmers in estimating the economic impact of the damage in comparison with deer for validation data, but a number of parameters can be changed in the two years between the distribution of the questionnaire and validation, including changes in the density deer, crop rotation, and the sharp decline in grain prices, which may explain some of the inaccuracies. There was no statistically significant between deer damage assessment and loss of performance, either for individual species or both species combined. The relationship between damage deer in the evaluation of the harvest and Roe deer density was significant (Post et al, 2001).
Wildlife managers must consider public preferences by population levels of wildlife, when determining management policies. 849 farmers, hunters and the general public in Maryland. U.S., were surveyed in 1996 to determine their preferences to increase, maintain or reduce the deer population numbers. Using random utility framework, the factors that explain preferences such as residential area, socioeconomic characteristics, landscape damage, loss agricultural performance and vehicle accidents were analyzed. The results suggest that most people benefit from and want to keep the deer population deer at current levels. Other characteristics such as age, income, education, and residential location, have less or no impact on preferences. Property damage crop loss, damage the landscape, and road accidents seem to be the major concern (Curtis et al 2001).
11. Sika deer population in Japan
Sika deer Cervus nippon population in eastern Hokkaido, Japan, increased rapidly during the period 1990-1998. This increase seems to have stopped in 1999-2000, probably due to the big game and control of nuisances. The period of rapid growth was associated with a disproportionately rapid increase in the compensation paid by the deer damage to crops. We studied the changes in diet during 1990-2000, as reflected by stable isotope ratios of C and N in the collagen of the teeth. Our hypothesis is that isotope ratios show the change of diet in relation to population levels and / or time, and changes in isotope ratios are age Sika in line with the increase of individual consumption of pasture in the highest levels of the population, the delta 13C collagen isotope ratios of teeth in 3 years indicated a diet dominated by C3 plants during the whole period, and forage species other than grasses and dwarf bamboo Sasa nipponica (the main crop and forest understory plants, respectively) were important elements. There was a significant decrease in 13C isotope ratio delta during 1990-2000 for both men and women, delta 15N values showed no trend over time for men but increased over time in women. Population rates (sightings per unit effort, vomit) were negatively correlated with the woman delta 13C, and a correlation Women with positive delta 15N values indicating a change in diet during the period, especially among women. This change may be related to population and / Or levels of extraction, particularly the rapid increase in female removal for discomfort control and hunting during the period. The data are consistent with an increase on the consumption of pasture grass per person in the highest levels of the population, however, other explanations are equally plausible data. Possible changes in diet and other factors that influence the shift in isotope ratios are discussed. Although statistically significant, the magnitude of the change of diet, yet seemed small, and did not provide evidence to justify changing the current policy of limiting the damage to crops by reducing of them produced about 25% of peak levels (Halley et al 2006).
12. The deer damage
White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) can cause more damage than any other species of wildlife. These damages include crop loss, automobile and aviation collisions, transmission disease, environmental degradation and destruction of ornamental plantings. A practical method of controlling deer damage is the use of exclusion fences. The relatively high cost of labor and materials needed to build effective fences has limited most applications for the protection of orchards, farms vegetables, other valuable resources, and mitigation of human health and safety risks. Improvements in barrier technology resulting in less expensive, but effective fence have extended the use of the fence to manage the damage caused by deer. Fence is typically installed to manage white-tailed deer damage include wire or plastic mesh, steel wire electrified high tensile and electric fence polytape or polyrope. We reviewed the scientific literature on fencing to determine which about the designs would be most effective for excluding deer in a variety of situations (VerCauteren et al 2006).
The installation of fences to protect agricultural products, natural resources, or other areas of deer (Odocoileus spp.) Can be expensive and potential benefits of fencing are difficult to quantify. A rational method is needed to help evaluate whether fencing can be profitable and which fence designs will be optimal for applications in particular. They describe an interactive, dynamic simulation model that performs economic analysis and predicts the economic benefits associated with fences for crops in relation to the area and perimeter of protected plot, the value of the crop, the percentage of crops damaged by deer each year before the fencing, the effectiveness of the fence, and the costs of materials and labor nearby. Model users can adjust these variables to suit their individual situations and needs. Running a series of simulations, model users can answer questions directly related to the effectiveness and cost-effective fence (VerCauteren K et al 2006).
13. Damage to corn by wildlife
Damages corn U.S. is estimated at 6.6 per HAC due to wildlife. White-tailed deer wild animal is responsible for the loss. The average property hacters farmers were 125, of which 55 hectares were planted with corn. (Tzilkowsi et al 2002).
14. Deer damage
Deer (Odocoileus spp.) Can cause significant damage to agricultural crops, resulting in economic losses for producers. They developed a deer-activated bio-acoustic device to reduce the fear of white-tailed deer (O, virginianus) damage caused in the agricultural fields. The device considers an infrared detection system that triggers an audio component that broadcast recorded distress calls and alarm deer. He tested the device against unprotected controls in cornfields during the silking growth, flowering in July 2001. The device was not effective in reducing damage: the track-count indices (F1, 4 = 0.02), the maize yield (F1, 9 = 1.27, P = 0.289), and levels of the estimated (F1, 10 = 0.87, P = 0.374) did not differ between the experimental and control fields. The size (F2, 26 = 1.00, P = 0.380), (location F2, 25 = 0.39, P = 0.684), and the percentage of agreement (F2, 25 = 0.20, P = 0.818) the use of doe radiomarked areas did not differ between the periods and after treatment. They concluded that the deer-activated bio-acoustic device was not effective in protecting cornfields in this study, however, the device can be more effective in small areas, like gardens or high-value crops that do not grow tall enough to provide protection coverage (Gilsdorf et al 2004).
White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) cause millions of dollars in damage to crops agricultural year. It tested the effectiveness of propane detonators and electronic Guard (Pocatello Supply Depot, Pocatello, ID). To reduce the deer damage in cornfields during the silking-flowering growth. Track count rates (F2, 7 = 0.70, P = 0.532), performance corn (F2, 6 = 0.14, P = 0.873), and estimated damage levels (F2, 12 = 1.45 p = 0.272) did not differ between the experimental and control fields. The size (F2, 11 = 0.08, P = 0.924), location (F2, 9 = 0.30, P = 0.750), and the percentage of agreement (F2, 9 = 0.46, P = 0.644) using the areas radiomarked female deer in the vicinity of experimental fields did not differ between before, during and after treatment periods of 18 days. In a related study, we have propane detonators in the corn fields in areas of use of 12 female deer radiomarked. The deer did not react significantly to the devices, the size (F2, 17 = 0.08, P = 0.921), location (F2, 22 = 1.37, P = 0.275), and the percentage of agreement (F2, 10 = 0.47, P = 0.636) of deer use areas did not differ between the before, during and after treatment periods of 14 days. They conclude that electronic detonators propane and guards have the potential limited to reduce deer damage to corn in the silking-flowering (Glisdorf 2004l et al.
The welfare measure of damage to wildlife in Ontario (Canada) producers of field crops during the 1998 was. The welfare measure is presented in this study provides a more accurate picture of losses from wildlife damage to agriculture. Other damage estimates based on yield loss overstate the damage that wildlife benefits are offset. Results of field crops growers in Ontario indicate that the magnitude of the difference between the value of yield loss and the welfare measure of damage is approximately 50%. This difference indicates that most farmers were willing to tolerate the damage that wildlife experienced (H et al 2001).
15. Grapevine damage and losses
In field trials in 1999-2000 in Gundla Pochampally, Andhra Pradesh, India, the incidence of damage to the green vine was studied. The visits to vineyards by bats begain about 45 minutes after sunset and continued feeding until 1 hour before sunrise. The damage to fruit only mature, and increased around the time of harvest, percentage damage ranged from 0 to 100% (Bhargavi et al, 2001).
16. Damage Hippo
The introduction document describes the different ecological effects known the result of grazing, movement along roads, and rolling on the common hippopotamus. Hippopotamus amphibian. The study reported was conducted in the Kainji Lake National Park., Nigeria, during periods of dry season 1991 and (1992). The method adopted by Agnew, ADQ (East African Wildlife Journal (1966) 4, 38-46) was used to evaluate the traces of hippos forage at three sites in the hippo pool. A total of 32 trails were listed, of which 18 were in the pool at the site Kaii hippopotamus, while the frequency of the use of roads was also more high for this site relating to another area. The upstream of the downward trend in the occupation of the hippo pools dry season could expose hippo conflict damage to crops in outlying areas.
17. Hygo, Japan, crop damage in mammals
The Hyogo-dwelling mammals consist of seven orders, 17 families and about 40 species. Except for Lagomorpha and Artiodactyla, the remaining five orders, they include species that need some protection and amounting to about 55% of all species except extinct, introduced and wild species. Information on the ecology, in Hyogo Prefecture has accumulated in the protection of a few species need no recent information from the spatial distribution in the eastern water shrew, bat and dormouse noctula Japanese Japanese, and little information on the Japanese shrew, Japanese horse shoe bat, Japanese large-footed bat. Schreiber bowed bat wings, bat Japanese nose tube, parti color common bat, squirrel, Japanese, small Japanese flying squirrel, the Japanese giant flying squirrel, harvest mouse and vole Smith Badger Japanese. Damage and population management is also required in Japanese sika deer and feral pigs to reduce their crops – damaging, and comprehensive management in the Japanese black bear, the local population in danger of extinction, to avoid fatal accident bear man. Alteration of habitat due to human activities, without But it has affected the population sizes and spatial distribution of all these, mammals in Hyogo. Habitat management takes precedence over the damage. Basic and applied scientific research and understanding of wildlife ecology and management of science requires the promotion of citizens (Mitani M, 2000).
18. Monkey damage
Forty-seven property owners in Entebbe, Uganda, were interrogated about the activities of green monkeys of their own. The aim was to investigate the interactions between humans and vervet monkeys in an area agricultural area adjacent to a forest. Other studies have reported that farms located within 300 m from the forest boundary probably incur the greatest risk of invasion crops. Two other factors that may influence susceptibility to tota crop-raiding were also examined: the types of crops and types of direct measures of prevention used. The effect of these two factors in cultures of green monkeys plunder is not easy. However, the distance of a property is located on the edge of the forest is a factor important influence in attack on vervet crop. Surveyed gardens 200 m from the forest edge received much less invade crops from farms to 100 or 50 meters (p = 0.040, Saj et al 2001).
19. Damages Bait
Longevity of zinc phosphide (ZP) in wheat bait was determined at the end of the "dry" and "wet" seasons, Western Australia .. If Although the total rainfall during the two tests was 74 mm and 155 mm, the substantial loss of ZP was recorded only after significant rainfall events. Regardless of the season, the loss of ZP bait applied in bait stations was minimal. The maximum loss recorded was 17% and this occurred after exposure of 21 days during the wet season, where bait stations are placed in the harvest. However, regardless of application method, ZP always remained sufficient in wheat bait. Theoretically it was lethal to rats at least 8-14 days (Twigg et al., 2001).
20.Venezuela experience:
In Venezuela, lethal control wintering Dickcissels (Spiza americana) is considered a threat for the survival of the species. To help farmers protect their crops of rice and sorghum Dickcissels and minimize the death of large numbers of these birds, non-lethal alternative measures of crop protection are needed. To this end, the responses of captive birds Dickcissels three repellent chemicals (anthraquinone, methyl anthranilate and methiocarb) applied to rice seed. In one cup feeding trials, methiocarb treatments (0.05% g / g, applied as dust Mesurol 75% wettable powder) and anthraquinone (0.5%, applied as flight control) reduced rice consumption by 70% compared with pretreatment consumption. Other treatments anthraquinone (0.05,0.1%) and authranilate methyl (0.05%) were inrffective. Cup in two trials, with untreated millet as the alternative food, consumption of rice treated with 0.05 and 0.1% anthraquinone was reduced by 90% compared to previous levels. In general, responded to repellents Dickcissels like the red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus). For flight control has been used successfully to reduce blackbird use of rice fields in the U.S., the outlook is good for successful reduction of damage to repening Dickcissels rice in Venezuela, particularly if repellent use, together with the establishment of alternative feeding sites (Avery et al 2001). Deer selected carrots over all green manure crops.
21. Nilgai Damage in India
Damage to crops by nilgai has been widely reported in India. Do you see nilgai is increasing in this region. The lack of natural predators, overgrazing and deforestation in the protection of those animals in Hindu communities are the reasons for its excess population. Cover Acacia trees are generally used by nilgai as shelter during the day, but not food, so going for crop-raiding in the evening and at night, jumping through the 6-7 foot high stone wall, barbed fences and palisades of dead or living plant material thorny and guardrails or other barriers to protect crops. Due to the custom of grazing and browsing that devours all sorts of farm species (both Rabi and kharif crops). It has been observed to eat less, but the destruction by trampling over and damaging are therefore regarded as serious pests of crops in mammals and farmers want to travel this pest does not conventional. Farmers drive them away with just following the rules, making loud noise by crackers or air gun fires, following through tractors empty tin or dried gourd filled with small stones and connected with chains. Technically, carrots (logs), ditches and fences that are suggested to mitigate power damage to crops. Second, animals could be relocated to wildlife refuges visited site of the serious problems of overcrowding or incursions cultures (Goyal et al 2000).
22. Pesticides and wildlife
A range of monitoring activities showed anticholinesterase effects of pesticides on wildlife in the UK, and the risks are evident below laboratory experiments and field, along with the scale of field use. Along with other broad-spectrum insecticides, organophosphates many direct negative impact on non-target arthropods in farmland, and thus may contribute to the indirect effects of pesticides on biodiversity in farmland. Insecticides anticholinesterases have lethal and sublethal effects on aquatic fauna, however, the story of the recent incidents of damage to river ecology following the broad use of synthetic pyrethroid sheep fall, illustrates the need to consider the implications of changes in the use of alternatives in the review of these insecticides (Burn 2000).
The use of anthraguinone based flight control and methyl anthranilate-based bird food nontoxic repellent that is used to prevent crop damage by cranes. Repellents both thought they were effective in deterring cranes from treated corn, neither has been tested in the maize under field conditions. (Blackwell et al 2001).
Oak seedlings were scientifically formulated. Damages damage and seedling mortality of wildlife were minimal navigate when using the mixture of certain herbicides. Biological and aesthetically, the procedure was very successful (Ezell et al 1999).
Pre-commercial thinned (forests are less prone to damage from moose (McLaren et al, 2000).
23. The use of pesticides in conflicts
Pesticides can cause harm to people and beneficial organisms. Some sublethal effects of pesticides have been studied in birds in order to identify the biochemical responses features that can be useful for monitoring exposure to sublethal levels in the field. The pesticides were used, demeton-S-methyl (DSM), chlorpyrifos, chlorfenviphos, triazophos, pirimicarb, methiocarb, permethrin. Blood was collected before dosing, and 2,6,24,48 and 72 hours after treatment brachial vein of birds. Of the enzyme activities were assayed in plasma or serum samples obtained. The tests performed were GOT, MHD, GDH, SDH, GGT and Che. The results showed an increase in plasma and serum levels of Taiwan and gamma-GT was found in all animals treated with the pesticide before. The level of increase in Che birds after treatment with permethrin. It was concluded that pesticides cause structural and functional changes in the liver and also the measurement of the parameters previous activities may be useful in assessing exposure and sublethal effects of pesticides on wildlife (Dahamna et al 2004).
24. IPM and crop losses
Queensland Sugar, the industry has recently implemented a comprehensive integrated pest management (IPM) system to minimize crop losses of two species of rodents antivir, Rattus sordidus (grasscutter) and burtoni Melomy (climbing rat). These species inflicted approximately $ 25 million damage to a major outbreak in the 1999-2000 season. Both of these rodents are shown as wildlife common under the schedules of the Queensland Nature Conservation (Wildlife) Regulation 1994. The IPM program is based on understanding the ecology and biology of each species. Program incorporates a large-scale monitoring to provide early warning of impending rodents to prevent accumulation of large outbreaks. Industry has also developed a memorandum of understanding with the Queensland State Government, which provides industry of pest management needs, while providing a better accountability system for the adoption of two species of Queenslands native wildlife. The consensus reached between the cooperating parties (The Sugar Bureau Stations Experimental CANEGROWERS, regional base of cane productivity in services, and the results can be negotiated between rural industry and environmental interests (Hunt, et al 2004).
In areas around Lake Mburo National Park, large wild animals wander in close proximity to human settlements. This poses a serious conflict terms of damage to crops. The integration of conservation with other land uses is difficult where densely settled agricultural land surrounding the area protected animals potentially problem, as is the case for several parks in Africa and Asia. The intensity of the attack on the crops was quantified through the use of quadrants Random crops / plots and area estimation techniques in a portion of raided fields. The animal species in question were documented from observations, fingerprints and any other marks left behind. Three variables were tested as predictors of damage, human population density, distance from boundaries the park and the station. This study provides data on the loss of crops in different seasons, the analysis of the variation in damage crop and animal species involved in crop losses. A diverse set of animals fed on subsistence crops and analysis of damage crops revealed significant depreciation of crops by wild animals (Kagoro et al 2004).
25. Hawaii pests
The apple snail, P.canaliculata, is a freshwater aquatic snails, native to South America, originally to Hawaii as pets for the aquarium trade, was introduced early in the plots of wetlands known as the "where Taro (Colocasia esculenta), economically and culturally significant crop is grown. Some individuals motivated snails, being edible, can be harvested as food, and that the increase of snails with taro in the "Io" could bring additional revenue to the taro crop with minimal additional input. This introduction of the snails taro in the "Sangha", however, proved a disaster. Farmers do not take into account greed, reproductive capacity, and rapid growth of snails. Due to the ideal conditions in the taro "Sangha", the snails rapidly multiplied and fed largely on buds and calluses of taro, in many cases, the total destruction of a crop before harvest time. Hindisight has shown that the snails are dissipated through the irrigation system across the "Sangha" and then spread to the surrounding wetlands. Large breeding populations have been established in wetland areas on the islands of Hawai'e, Oahu, Kauai and Maui. Some of these wetlands are wildlife preserves with state and federal mandates that limit the potential for eradication methods. It provides information P.canaliculata both general and taro to fully explain the challenges and opportunities this situation presents (Tamaru et al 2006).
26. Chemical repellents
Chemical repellents applied to food ripening sunflower might help reduce blackbird (lcteridae) damage, which is a chronicle of the agricultural problems of seed harvesting of information. Repellents again, however, costs are high to develop and register for agricultural use. In 2003 and 2004, assessed the feeding repellency of 8 pesticide registered by the Environmental Protection Agency for use in sunflower. Caged Red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) were fed with sunflower husk treated with the pesticides: 5 pyrethroid insecticides, an organochlorine, an organophosphate, and gungicide. Compared with untreated refernce groups, rates Power was reduced from 4 of the 5 pyrethroid insecticides. Only organophosphate (chlorpyrifos), however, significantly reduced feeding rates. More research on the effects of repellency of this product in the field efficacy trials is likely justified on the basis of the results of our experiments cage. Depending the time of application, registered insecticides in food blackbird repellency could provide additional economic benefits to producers of sunflower through the use of dual-purpose ((Linz et al 2006).
27. Organic Pollutants (POPs)
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have spread throughout the Global Environment Facility that threaten human health and damage ecosystems, with evidence of POPs contamination in wildlife, human blood and breast milk documented worldwide. Based on data from the Food and Drug Administration of USA, this article provides a brief overview of POPs residues in common foods in the U.S. food supply. The analysis focuses on 12 selected chemicals now for an international phase under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Available information indicates that POPs residues are present in virtually all categories of foods, including baked goods, fruits, vegetables, meat, poultry and dairy products. Residues of five or more toxic chemicals persistent in a single food which is not unusual, persistent organic pollutants are more common than DDT, pesticides (and metabolites such as DDE) and dieldrin. Estimated daily doses of dieldrin alone exceed U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Reference Dose control for children. Given the widespread presence of POPs in the food supply and the serious health risks associated with extremely small levels, including exposure, preventing further contamination of food should be a priority in national health policy in each country. Implementation of the Convention Stockholm prevent further accumulation of persistent toxic substances in food. Early ratification and rapid implementation of this treaty should be a priority urgent for all governments (Schafer et al 2002).
28. Experiences of Netherlands
Traditionally, the pink-footed geese Anser brachyrhynchus winter in Denmark, the Netherlands and Belgium have used the Danish sites only during the mild winter, is moved rapidly southward in case of cold spells. Since the 1980s, an increasing number of geese have been maintained on the basis despite Danish wintering of cold weather, feeding on grasses as winter wheat is a reliable power supply and cost, even in the winter break, the recent change of agricultural practice has improved the development of a new strategy of wintering pink-footed geese, allowing northward expansion of their range in winter. Potentially, this conflict will increase crop damage and can lead to higher population growth (Therkidsen et al 2000).
Test box near Huron, California in the San Joaquin Valley 12 to 23 January 1999, determining the effectiveness of Flight Control TM (50% of anthraquinone) and Mesurol R (75 methiocarb%) in preventing damage to lettuce seedlings lark. TM flight control (FC) and Mesurol R were evaluated as foliar sprays at application rates 2.79 and 2.27 kg ha-1, respectively. Cacho lark damage to lettuce seedlings treated with anthraquinone was higher (p = 0.015) than for R methiocarb, 60 vs. 20%, respectively, and plants in control plots was 100% destroyed. While this level of damage is probably unacceptable to the producers of lettuce should be recalled that the situation confining pressure caused an artificially high in poultry farming. Other studies in open fields under a pressure of more normal birds are guaranteed (York et al 2000).
29. Damage Ozone
The incidence and severity of the lesion visible foliar ozone in cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata L.) and the crown of bread (Verbesina occidentalis Walt.) Were determined. It is therefore a matter of the consideration that the area of injury can damage vegetation damaged by browsing, or even cut. Ozone injury was higher in lower leaves, both for the species sampled with more than 95% of leaves wounds that occur in the bottom 50% of the plant. This is the first report of foliar ozone injury in these plant species in situ in the Park, demonstrating the great variability in the expression of symptoms over time, and within and between populations (Chappelka et al 2003).
30. Arrears protected and humans
Knowledge of conflict between people and protected areas is necessary for the design of conservation strategies for the sustainable management of protected areas. The study identifies the causes of conflicts between local people and Benous Wildlife Conservation Area (BWCA), which includes Benous National Park, in northern Cameroon. Informal interviews and questionnaires were administered to 114 families in three communities, and 17 park staff and 7 professional hunting guides from July to October 1997. Damage to crops affected 86% of households surveyed, with 31% of agricultural income lost on average, and the damage varies significantly between communities. The elephants, baboons, patas monkeys. Green parrots feral and represented 97% of the damage to crops, with maize, the staple food and millet being the most affected. Of the respondents 27% of livestock predation experience, with 18% of the income of livestock lost, on average. The civet cat was the main predator. The participation of the population local in illegal activities, lack of access to natural resources and damage by wild animals were identified as major causes of conflicts. Local people, park staff and professional hunting guides were various suggestions diverse and different insights into the causes of conflict and acts to reduce the wildlife damage including draft scare and controlled. We conclude that, under the current wildlife policy, conflicts between people and BWCA (Bonous area of Wildlife Conservation) is difficult to solve. To reduce conflict and promote sustainable conservation, we suggest co-management of life wild of all stakeholders, team building control crop damage and the promotion of material benefits for local people. There may be a requirement of site-specificity in management strategies (Weladji et al 2003).
31. The low use of technology to prevent damage
It is suggested that an integrated, community-based, low technological approach be the most sustainable solution to this conflict (Osborn et al 2003).
Blackbirds (lcteridae) annually damage U.S. $ 5-8 million ripening sunflower in the northern Great Plains. Avicide blackbirds with rice bait treated during the spring migration might reduce regional populations breeding. birds can be fattened avicide successfully treated rice placed on corn stover (Linz et al 2003).
The accumulation of plant debris is considered a key factor in determining the abundance of small mammals and the potential damage in low-till agriculture ((Stermer et al 2003) areas.
The total projected value of yield losses of crops due to wildlife damage to the villages in the buffer zone of Garhwal Himalayas in about Rs.5 38 620 (U.S. $ 15 389). In addition to food crops, horticultural crops ie Apple, also suffered. The wildlife
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